The military relationship between Qatar and the United States Essay

The military relationship between Qatar and the United States - Essay Example Similarly, the states in the Middle East have been seeking to relate with the United States in a manner that promotes their political, security, and economic interests. Historical records indicate that the first contacts between these two can be traced to the late eighteenth century when there were efforts to sustain relations between them. This was particularly reflected through American missionaries who were spreading Christianity in Middle East and Africa. Apart from spreading Christianity, they were also establishing educational institutions, primarily in Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon (Shunnaq 2012). In Post-World War II period, the United States has been seeking to maintain relations with the Middle East based on prevailing interests, mainly supply of oil and promoting security and democracy in the region. It should be noted that the relationship of the United States and the Middle East has also been largely shaped by how it relates with the Israeli state and conversely how Isra el is relating with the other states in the Middle East (Hahn 2005). Political analysts and historians argue that the Israel-Palestinian conflict has significantly shaped the United States policy in the Middle East. In addition, the recent happenings in Syria have been critical in defining how the United States relates with the Middle East, and vice-versa. ... States like Iran, Lebanon, and Syria are yet to warm to cordial relationship with the United States (Blanchard 2011). This paper will discuss the United States policy with specific reference to the military relationship between the United States and Qatar. Qatar is a small peninsular state that borders Saudi Arabia in the Gulf of Persia. It is a constitutional monarchy being headed by the Emir, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani. It gained full independence on 3rd September, 1971 from Britain. The Emir is the head of government and has the mandate of appointing members of the governing Council of ministers, headed by Prime Minister Abdallah bin Khalifa Al-Thani, who is the monarch’s brother (Fromherz 2011). It has a constitution that was approved in April 2003 and it stipulates that the state rule is hereditary within the family of Al-Thani. It further stipulates that the future successors will follow the Emir’s male offspring line. In addition, the constitution states that the re shall be a legislative authority residing in the hands of Advisory Council of 45 members, two-thirds of whom are elected directly, while one-third are appointees of the Emir. Natural gas and oil production is the backbone of Qatar’s robust economy, which has been experiencing an average annual economic growth of 9 percent over the last half a decade. It has signed a number of agreements with the United States energy companies such as ExxonMobil and ConocoPhillips. As regards its foreign policy, Qatar is a United Nations’ member, as well as being a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council, the Organization of Islamic Conference, the Arab League, and the Organization of

Morality & Social Justice-Rubric for Essay Essay Example for Free

Morality Social Justice-Rubric for Essay Essay Seven influential moral thinkers hammered just war tradition which has been distilled into seven principles where five of the principles judge whether a decision to go to war is actually justifiable while the other two are a guide to just conduct in waging a war. The principles of a just war include: legitimate authority, just cause, just intent, last resort, reasonable chance of success, principle of discrimination and the principle of proportionality. The Spanish and Portuguese were not justified to go to war with the Guarani but the Guarani were justified to war with the Portuguese and the Spanish. Subjecting the Portuguese and the Spanish to the seven principles of a just war they were not justified to go to war. The first principle which requires that before a war is started, it must be declared by a legally recognized authority which in most cases is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces while in United states it the Congress was not met by the Spanish and Portuguese soldiers. The soldier according to Alves were sent to relocate the Guarani but when they resisted they resorted to military action where many natives were killed and other were taken as slaves without the order of the legal authorities of the two nations (4). Before going to war with the Guarani the just war principles demand that Spanish and Portuguese leaders and soldiers were to seek an order from the commander-in-chief of the armed forces of their respective countries before waging a war with the natives which they did not do. The second principle of a just war that requires that a war should not be started on the basis of expanding a territory or national pride but only for a just cause like resistance to aggression by means of threat of attack or attack was not met either by the Portuguese and the Spanish in fighting the Guarani people. They instead invaded the people with an aim to relocate them to take them as slaves but when the Guarani resisted they started war with them thereby breaching the just cause (Alves 4). Another principle require that before starting a war the aims of the war should be just and limited which should be restoring justice and peace and not vengeance. The Spanish and the Portuguese breached this principle as well since their intention was not to restore peace or justice among the Guarani people. They waged the war out of their own selfish gain because the natives were living peacefully before. Their interest was the land of the Guarani and to enslave them as well. It was not the last resort for the Portuguese and the Spanish to start war with the Guarani people. The principles requires that all other means should be used to resolve dispute between contending parties and that the means must have been tried and found to fail before going to war. In the situation of the Portuguese, Spanish and the Guarani people there was no dispute in the first place. It is the Spanish and Portuguese that were determined to take the land that belonged to the natives and to take them as slaves and even after the natives resisted their effort they never used any other means to resolve the dispute but war. There should be reasonable chance of success before starting a war which the Portuguese and the Spanish did not take to consideration. The principle requires that the situation should be accessed to ascertain if there is a possibility of success before initiating or continuing a war. They never considered this fact and that is the reason why the war continued for several decades and they were eventually defeated (Elves 6). Another principle of a just war tradition that the Portuguese and Spanish violated is the principle of civilian immunity or honor of noncombatant where the noncombatants are not targeted to avoid civilian deaths. It also requires that prisoners captured should be treated humanely and that military forces desist from rapes, massacres, looting and other atrocities. This was not the case in the wars of the Guarani where all sorts of atrocities were committed against the people since children, women and men alike were taken captives and were not treated humanely. The principle of proportionality which requires that the harm to be caused by a war must not exceed the good the war can accomplish. Before the Europeans invaded the natives they were living peacefully in their land but after they attacked them they were left with sorrows since some died, others were enslaved, property destroyed and families disunited forever. It therefore goes without saying that the Spanish and the Portuguese caused several harm and zero good to the Guarani which is against this principle of just war. The Portuguese and the Spanish were not justified to initiate and continue the war with the Guarani after being subjected to the seven principles of a just war tradition. In all the instances they went contrary to the principles. They were not interested in the plight of the people or the outcome of the war but their own selfish gains. Works Cited Alves, Wesley. The Mission. 2007. 3 May 2010 http://people. bu. edu/wwildman/WeirdWildWeb/courses/thth/projects/thth_projects_2007wesley_alves. pdf

Birth Of Nazism :: essays research papers

BIRTH OF NAZISM "Until the German people understand that one can conduct politics only when one has the support of power—and again power. Only so is reconstruction possible… It is not an economic question which faces the German people, it is a political question—how shall the nation’s determination be recovered?" (Bullock, 1962) Adolf Hitler posed this question to the German people in 1923. The face of post World War I Germany was truly battered, in all senses of the word. Germany had lost the war politically, which essentially meant emotionally. The country had no sense of leadership, and was suffering from many economic hardships. With the loss of the war, came the humiliation of the Treaty of Versailles. Within the treaty, many demands of Germany were made which nearly raped her of her economic capacities. Industries had suffered, causing great unemployment. With this unemployment came inflation as well. The hardships posed upon the country not only harmed her economically, but socially too. The state of the people was equally harsh. Stripped of any sign of nationalism that may have once reigned within them, there was very little to have pride in. They were the joke of Europe, not to mention the brutal force which had caused the hardships within her neighbors as well. Leadership was also lacking at t his time. The control of state that had once governed in Germany was strongly ousted away. Germany knew nothing but monarchical rule, but this had been replaced with the democratic attempt of the Weimar Republic. This was the state of 1933 Germany, one that not endured since the Thirty Years War. Everything familiar to Germany had been replaced by the Treaty of Versailles. This state was the "breeding ground" of Nazism, or National Socialism. At a time of severe depression, the ideas and promises of the National Socialists looked very promising. Many Germans lacked faith in the existing government and began to turn to political groups that called for extreme changes. Nazis had divined a plan, and were willing to lead Germany to the grandeur that she deserved. Lead by the bold and charismatic Adolf Hitler, the light of a brighter future began to shine through the clouds of the post war era. Though new to Germany when Nazism was embedded within the system in 1933, its roots spawn much further back into history. It is general thought that Nazism is nothing more than a branch of Fascism.

Analyzing Race and Its Influence in your Community

Racial influences rely on a number of factors depending on a place’s history and location. It may include racism according to color, racism according to social status, and racism based on religion and ethnicity. But regardless of its foundation, racism indeed has interesting effects on people and the society at large.Racial differences in our community are not in terms of color, but of religion and ethnicity. Actually, it is between Muslims and Christians. Anywhere in the world today, the root cause of conflicts can be attributed to religious and ethnic diversities.The unsolved barrier amongst Muslims and Christians has always resulted to misunderstandings, discrimination and worse, wars which end up to loss of lives and more prejudice and hatred. Personally, I believe racism only puts the clashing parties at losing ends.Culture and traditions between Muslims and Christians are different. It can be said that Muslims are more conservative and secluded compared to Christians who are more or less Westernized. From clothing to behavior and practices, both beliefs have little similarities.In the community where I lived in, Christians often criticized the Muslim way of life. Basic is their manner of clothing. Muslim women are sanctioned to wear veils and not a single strand of hair should be exposed in public. The head should be totally covered. No skin should be seen so women always wear long-sleeves and long pants and skirts to cover their arms and legs respectively.Talking or hanging out with men is prohibited as well. Islamic laws require that women should remain traditional and well-kept in order to be respected and clean in the eyes of Allah, the Muslim term for God. Some Christians often make rude and impolite remarks in front of Muslim women and stared at them head to foot which is a sign of disrespect and indifference.Apathetically, some Christians cannot really hide their emotions in that they want their strong message to be really imparted in a crue l manner. They utter comments such as â€Å"Muslims are born traitors† which is for me, a nasty thing to say. It is making the gap farther and harder to patch up.Drinking alcohol is a taboo for Islamic submitters. They should abide by the five pillars of Islam including pronouncement of faith in Allah (shahadah), praying five times a day (salat), fasting during the Holy Month of Ramadhan (saum), giving alms to the poor (zakat), and pilgrimage to Mecca if possible (hajj). Some Christians also laughed at the manner Muslims pray. During Ramadhan, some non-Muslims express negative interpretations by questioning the significance of not eating and not drinking anything the whole day.On the contrary, Christians are more carefree and liberated though there are some conservative families as well. But more often than not, they can do anything under the sun. Discipline and control are still instilled upon them but their behavior is often unlimited.Muslims also criticized Christians for being too modern especially in the way they dress. Some women wear very suggestive clothing, showing a lot of skin. These women are often disrespected and insulted by Muslim men and even Christian men for being too showy and vulgar. But Christians do not mind these comments thinking that they are up-to-date relative to the popular trends as seen on television and in the Internet.Most young Christian women nowadays are free to hang out anywhere; some even drink and smoke in public. If public display of affection to a boyfriend or girlfriend is illegal for Muslims, Christians often welcome it. Muslims usually practice arranged marriage and exclusiveness in marriage between Muslims alone while most Christians can choose whoever they want to be their lifetime partner regardless of religion and culture.As long as the couple loves each other, they can marry without obstacles from the woman’s family. This is very prevalent in the community where I live in.Muslim women who occasional ly end up with Christian men are often disowned and as a result, the family of the Muslim woman takes revenge not only to the Christian guy but to his entire clan as well. Some cases unfortunately end up in killings or total disowning of the Muslim woman by her kin and family including relatives and other blood relations.

Key Budget Factor for a Construction Company

Key Budget Factor for a Construction Company Master Science in Facilities Management Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying University technology MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia ____________________________________________________________________________ Abstract Construction companies generally have a variety of objectives designed to maintain and succeed in their business. They will also do a lot of effort to maximize profits for their companies but with minimum capital.Some companies are concerned about how management including budget management because from there they can manage their company's financial success and further profit. This paper will be discussed about the key factor for a construction company in Malaysia. The purpose of this discussion is to find out the key factors that should be considered in budget management by construction companies throughout Malaysia. Keyword: Construction Company, key budget factor, Malaysia ______________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 1. IntroductionBudget is very comprehensive; it is a formal plan that estimates the likely revenues and expenses for a company in a particular period. Budget preparation explains the whole process and use the budget more effectively. Budget management is very important especially for construction companies to ensure that projects run smoothly implemented in line with the company's capital. According to Chan and Chan (2004), the construction industry is dynamic in nature and its environment has become more dynamic due to increasing uncertainties in technology, budgets and development process.Besides that, according to Churchill (1997) accentuates the fact that businesses must understand the pressure to grow so that they can plan and prepare for it, choose the right timing for expected major changes in size and control the speed of growth. 2. Key Budget Factor for a Construction company throughout Malaysia The budget is used in construction work to determine the amount of liquid cash that will be required over the various periods of a contract, as a measurement against which actual progress can be measured.The budget is a financial forecast and important tool of management, in as much as trading position of a construction company can be establish by having budgets for all of the work on hand. According to FOA Corporate (1997), key budget factor also known as principal budget factor or limiting budget factor and is the factor which will limit the activities of an undertaking. This limits output such as sales, material or labour. Among the key factors for the company's construction budget is as follows: i. Sales budgetThis involves a realistic sales forecast. This is prepared in units of each product and also in sales value. Methods of sales forecasting include sales force opinions, market research, and statistical methods (correlation analysis and examination of trends) mathematical models. Sales budget includes company's pricing policy, general economic and political conditions, changes in the population, competition, consumers' income and tastes, advertising and other sales promotion techniques, after sales service, and credit terms offered. i. Production budget Expressed in quantitative terms only and is geared to the sales budget. The production manager's duties include two things which are analysis of plant utilization and work-in-progress budgets. If requirements exceed capacity the production manager may subcontract, plan for overtime, introduce shift work, hire or buy additional machinery and the materials purchases budget's both quantitative and financial. iii. Raw materials and purchasing budgetThis factor includes the materials usage budget is in quantities and the materials purchases budget is both quantitative and financial. Factors influencing included production requirements, planning stock levels, storage space, and trends of material prices. iv. Labour budget: Labo ur budget is both quantitative and financial. This is influenced by production requirements, man-hours available, grades of labour required, wage rates (union agreements), and the need for incentives. v. Cash budget A cash plan is to defined period of time.It cans summaries monthly receipts and payments. Besides that, it highlights monthly surpluses and deficits of actual cash. Its main uses are to maintain control over a firm's cash requirements such as stock and debtors, to enable a firm to take precautionary measures and arrange in advance for investment and loan facilities whenever cash surpluses or deficits arises, to show the feasibility of management's plans in cash terms, to illustrate the financial impact of changes in management policy, e. . change of credit terms offered to customers. REFERENCE 1. Agriculture and consumer Protection by FAO CORPORATE DOCUMENT REPOSITORY 2. Chan APC, Chan APL (2004). Key performance indicators for measuring construction success, Benchmark. Int. J. , 11(2): 203-221. 3. Churchill CF (1997). Managing Growth: The Organizational Architecture of Microfinance Institutions. ACCI on International. http://www. ebook-search-engine. com/organization-growth-ebook-all. html.

Motivation and Determination in the Film The Replacements

Motivation and Determination in the Film The Replacements Introduction The film, â€Å"The Replacements† depicts the dedication and devotion of the Washington Sentinels football players to succeed. It starts with a strike by the team’s professional players, technical bench and even the cheerleaders at a critical point of the season forcing the team’s owner, Edward O’Neil, to hire a retired coach, Jimmy McGinty, who hurriedly assembles a new team.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Motivation and Determination in the Film â€Å"The Replacements† specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The players of the new team happen to be former players with diverse interests making it hard for them to cooperate. Despite the perceived incompatible individual interests, motivation allows the team to succeed. The players include Shane Falco, a former player for Ohio State football team, a player from Wales, gangster rapper brothers and a deaf player. Despit e weak teamwork spirit at the beginning and opposition from former players, the team manages to reach the final playoffs. The team learns to cooperate and with support from cheerleaders headed by Annabelle Farrell, who is romantically involved with Shane, the team is able to advance into the final playoffs. In the finals, mistreatment of other players by the quarterback, Eddie Martell, causes the team to play poorly almost losing the game; however, help from a motivated Shaun, who returns in the second half, enables the team to win the finals. Motivation and Determination Motivation is important in organizations as â€Å"it builds willingness by the players or staff to work in order for the organization to achieve its goals (Goldratt and Cox 77). It bridges the gap between the ability or competence possessed by an employee and the willingness to work. Motivation also helps in building friendly interpersonal relationships amongst workers. The management should strive to keep the sta ff informed regarding the events of an organization. In addition, motivation boosts the spirit of teamwork and morale making the workers to perform more effectively. Motivation also creates a sense of belonging to an organization, which helps to build teamwork spirit and morale. Teamwork encourages â€Å"team members to strive hard to achieve common goals adding to the success of the organization† (Kotter 112). Additionally, motivation helps to improve individual performance of the workers leading to improved organizational performance as each individual strives to give his or her best. Furthermore, motivation allows the subordinates to develop self-confidence in what they do, which encourages them also to do their best on top of encouraging them to develop a sense of responsibility, which leads to employee developing initiatives to better their performance and develop cooperation towards team activities.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? L et's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Motivation is an important factor in enhancing employee satisfaction. Motivation through incentives provides a good working relationship between employees and the management as the employee unrest and industrial disputes reduce. Additionally, motivated employees would be less resistant to organizational changes that improve productivity of the organization. Improved productivity is the main goal of most organizations. Determination and dedication are other important elements that contribute success. Determination facilitates the achievement of organizational goals because it encourages Cooperation and coordination of the work force. Employee’s determination and dedication contributes to the stability of the work force. Good management that emphasizes on motivating its employees helps to increase the employee loyalty and determination in their work that in turn promotes retention of skill ed and efficient employees who help curve a good public image of the enterprise. The Replacements In the movie, ‘The Replacements†, lack of motivation among the players is most evident. When the newly appointed coach, Jimmy McGinty, visits Shane with a requisition to join the team, he is reluctant to accept the offer. He at first lacks the motivation to play, the reason being, he had suffered a major defeat as a player in the Sugar Bowl some years earlier and suffered ridicule later on. The coach advises him to ‘chase his dreams or take the red bill’. He however accepts the request and joins the team. Lack of dedication to the team made the pro football team to go on strike demanding a pay hike from five million dollars a year to seven million. They make a line in the stadium singing â€Å"solidarity forever† and refusing to participate in matches, which in turn forces the Sentinel’s owner to recruit the retired coach. The former pros lack of d edication makes them to resort to industrial action to resolve the dispute. However, new replacements are hired to complete the season, an act that angers the pros who try to disrupt the first game involving the new players. The script is not clear whether the cheerleaders strike is to support the striking Sentinel players; nevertheless, one thing is evident; they end up replacing the cheerleaders with strippers from a local club, which shows the lack of professionalism in the replacement team. In addition, the conduct of the striking team is wanting. They throw eggs at the bus of the replacement team and even overturn Shane’s truck.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Motivation and Determination in the Film â€Å"The Replacements† specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the makeup team, the players are losers and predictably, the team is not expected to perform. However, the team proves critics wron g when it emerges winners at the end of the film, an unexpected result as the team players do not like each other on top of disagreeing openly in the field. Additionally, there is lack of teamwork and cooperation as John Favreau, a replacement player who is a trained SWAT member tackles his own teammate, Shaun, rendering him ineffective throughout the remainder of the first game. In the build up to the final game, the owner of the Washington Sentinels team instructs the coach to play Eddie Martel despite having promised to give full autonomy to the coach. The team’s owner instructs the coach to field Eddie Martel in the final game and this tall order frustrates the coach who tells his favorite quarterback, Falco, of the decision. Consequently, the two (the coach and the player) are left unmotivated and even Falco takes Anabelle, the captain cheerleader on a date as a way of dealing with his depression. Approaches to Motivation The theory of motivation explains how motivation takes place in individuals and how it helps them to achieve their goals. The expectancy theory explains, â€Å"The desire to achieve a certain goal and the chances of success gives rise to motivation† (Miner 48). This theory gives the necessary conditions in achieving motivation; that is, the effort-to-performance expectancy and the performance-to-outcome expectancy should be more than zero. In the film, to achieve high motivation among the players, the coach should have determined the outcomes that each player wanted before making sure that the desired performances were met. Motivation is derived from satisfaction of the outcomes of a performance. To achieve satisfaction, change of perception regarding the assigned task is necessary. The replacement players’ perceptions regarding their own inadequacies deterred them from achieving greater success. The other theory that explains how team motivation can be achieved is the equity theory. According to this theory develope d by Stacy Adams, the individual evaluates whether a treatment is fair compared to the treatment given to others before choosing to participate in a given task. If the individual feels not rewarded equitably, he or she strives to reduce the inequity. In the film, scenes such as the owner’s insistence that the coach allows Eddie Martel to play instead of Falco, makes Falco feel under rewarded for his efforts. In addition, towards the end of the film, the coach tells the audience that even after winning their last game that allowed them to advance into the final playoffs, the players left the game with no endorsement deals or cheers from fans. The players, having achieved great success, which many did not expect, deserved to be cheered to motivate them and enhance their morale.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Attribution theory describes the importance of attributing one’s successes or failures to internal or external factors. Attributions â€Å"determine an individual’s motivational drive† (Beck 98). Self-serving attributions entails blaming others for a misfortune. The pros of Washington Sentinels attributed their team’s failure to the management resulting to a strike. Additionally, replacement players had odd characters and the opportunity to play for the Sentinels was a welcome chance to escape from aspects of their personal characters that they did not like. The players sought to escape uncomfortable realities about their lives and this constitutes escape theory. Conclusion Motivation is important in achieving employee satisfaction and determination in an organization. It also enhances improved performance of the employees, which contributes greatly to the increase in productivity of an organization. Motivation also promotes the willingness of the workers to strive for improved performance. In the film, ‘The Replacements’, the professional players were not motivated and showed this by staging a successful strike that led to the creation of makeup team to complete the season, which also lacked motivation. No common goals were set for the replacement players and as a result, they could not endeavor to be successful. Motivational theories describe the motivational drive in individuals that allows them to achieve higher performance. Beck, Robert. â€Å"Motivation: Theories and Principles.† New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 2000. Goldratt, Eliyahau, and Cox, Jeff. Self-Theories: Their Role in Motivation, Personality And Development; (Essays in Social Psychology). Philadelphia: Psychology Press, 2000. Kotter, John. Leading Change. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1996. Miner, John. Role Motivation Theories: People and Organizations. New York: Routledge, 1993.

Obsidian Hydration - An Inexpensive, but Problematic Dating Technique

Obsidian Hydration - An Inexpensive, but Problematic Dating Technique Obsidian hydration dating (or OHD) is a scientific dating technique, which uses the understanding of the geochemical nature of the volcanic glass (a silicate) called obsidian  to provide both relative and absolute dates on artifacts. Obsidian outcrops all over the world, and was preferentially used by stone tool makers because it is very easy to work with, it is very sharp when broken, and it comes in a variety of vivid colors, black, orange, red, green and clear. Fast Facts: Obsidian Hydration Dating Obsidian Hydration Dating (OHD) is a scientific dating technique using the unique geochemical nature of volcanic glasses.  The method relies on the measured and predictable growth of a rind that forms on the glass when first exposed to the atmosphere.  Issues are that rind growth is dependent on three factors: ambient temperature, water vapor pressure, and the chemistry of the volcanic glass itself.  Recent improvements in measurement and analytical advances in water absorption promise to resolve some of the issues.   How and Why Obsidian Hydration Dating Works Obsidian contains water trapped in it during its formation. In its natural state, it has a thick rind  formed by the diffusion of the water into the atmosphere when it first cooled- the technical term is hydrated layer. When a fresh surface of obsidian is exposed to the atmosphere, as when it is broken to make a stone tool, more water is absorbed and the rind begins to grow again.  That new rind is visible and can be measured under high-power magnification (40–80x). Prehistoric rinds can vary from less than 1 micron ( µm) to more than 50  µm, depending on the length of time of exposure.  By measuring the thickness one can easily determine if a particular artifact is older than another (relative age). If the rate at which water diffuses into the glass for that particular chunk of obsidian is known (thats the tricky part), you can use OHD to determine the absolute age of objects. The relationship is disarmingly simple: Age DX2, where Age is in years, D is a constant and X is the hydration rind thickness in microns. Defining the Constant Obsidian, natural volcanic glass exhibiting rind, Montgomery Pass, Mineral County, Nevada. John Cancalosi / Oxford Scientific / Getty Images Its nearly a sure bet that everybody who ever made stone tools and knew about obsidian and where to find it, used it: as a glass, it breaks in predictable ways and creates supremely sharp edges. Making stone tools out of raw obsidian breaks the rind and starts the obsidian clock counting. The measurement of rind growth since the break can be done with a piece of equipment that probably already exists in most laboratories. It does sound perfect doesnt it? The problem is, the constant (that sneaky D up there) has to combine at least three other factors that are known to affect the rate of rind growth: temperature, water vapor pressure, and glass chemistry. The local temperature fluctuates daily, seasonally and over longer time scales in every region on the planet. Archaeologists recognize this and started creating an Effective Hydration Temperature (EHT) model to track and account for the effects of temperature on hydration, as a function of annual mean temperature, annual temperature range and diurnal temperature range. Sometimes scholars add in a depth correction factor to account for the temperature of buried artifacts, assuming the underground conditions are significantly different than surface ones–but the effects havent been researched too much as of yet. Water Vapor and Chemistry The effects of variation in water vapor pressure in the climate where an obsidian artifact has been found have not been studied as intensively as the effects of temperature. In general, water vapor varies with elevation, so you can typically assume that water vapor is constant within a site or region. But OHD is troublesome in regions like the Andes mountains of South America, where people brought their obsidian artifacts across enormous changes in altitudes, from the sea level coastal regions to the 4,000-meter (12,000-foot) high mountains and higher. Even more difficult to account for is differential glass chemistry in obsidians. Some obsidians hydrate faster than others, even within the exact same depositional environment. You can source obsidian (that is, identify the natural outcrop where a piece of obsidian was found), and so you can correct for that variation by measuring the rates in the source and using those to create source-specific hydration curves. But, since the amount of water within obsidian can vary even within obsidian nodules from a single source, that content can significantly affect age estimates. Water Structure Research Methodology to adjust the calibrations for the variability in climate is an emergent technology in the 21st century. New methods critically evaluate the depth profiles of hydrogen on the hydrated surfaces using secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) or Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The internal structure of the water content in obsidian has been identified as a highly influential variable which controls the rate of water diffusion at ambient temperature. It has also been found that such structures, like water content, vary within the recognized quarry sources.  Ã‚   Coupled with a more precise measuring methodology, the technique has the potential to increase the reliability of OHD, and provide a window into the evaluation of local climatic conditions, in particular paleo-temperature regimes.   Obsidian History Obsidians measurable rate of rind growth has been recognized since the 1960s. In 1966, geologists Irving Friedman, Robert L. Smith and William D. Long published the first study, the results of experimental hydration of obsidian from the Valles Mountains of New Mexico. Since that time, significant advancement in the recognized impacts of water vapor, temperature and glass chemistry has been undertaken, identifying and accounting for much of the variation, creating higher resolution techniques to measure the rind and define the diffusion profile, and invent and improved new models for EFH and studies on the mechanism of diffusion. Despite its limitations, obsidian hydration dates are far less expensive than radiocarbon, and it is a standard dating practice in many regions of the world today. Sources Liritzis, Ioannis, and Nikolaos Laskaris. Fifty Years of Obsidian Hydration Dating in Archaeology. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 357.10 (2011): 2011–23. Print.Nakazawa, Yuichi. The Significance of Obsidian Hydration Dating in Assessing the Integrity of Holocene Midden, Hokkaido, Northern Japan. Quaternary International 397 (2016): 474–83. Print.Nakazawa, Yuichi, et al. A Systematic Comparison of Obsidian Hydration Measurements: The First Application of Micro-Image with Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry to the Prehistoric Obsidian. Quaternary International  (2018). Print.Rogers, Alexander K., and Daron Duke. Unreliability of the Induced Obsidian Hydration Method with Abbreviated Hot-Soak Protocols. Journal of Archaeological Science 52 (2014): 428–35. Print.Rogers, Alexander K., and Christopher M. Stevenson. Protocols for Laboratory Hydration of Obsidian, and Their Effect on Hydration Rate Accuracy: A Monte Carlo Simulation Study. Journal of Archaeological Scie nce: Reports 16 (2017): 117–26. Print. Stevenson, Christopher M., Alexander K. Rogers, and Michael D. Glascock. Variability in Obsidian Structural Water Content and Its Importance in the Hydration Dating of Cultural Artifacts. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 23 (2019): 231–42. Print.Tripcevich, Nicholas, Jelmer W. Eerkens, and Tim R. Carpenter. Obsidian Hydration at High Elevation: Archaic Quarrying at the Chivay Source, Southern Peru. Journal of Archaeological Science 39.5 (2012): 1360–67. Print.